Group 4 Project Blog: 1950's: The Decade of Mass Higher Education by Alex Snowden

The decade is the 1950’s and America is changing. Truman is leading the country as the hydrogen bomb is completed and the Korean War has started. The United States has passed the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1952 which opens the door for an influx of U.S. citizenship by ending racial and ethnic barriers. After Truman’s presidency ends Eisenhower is made the leader of the country and the future of the United States is ever changed. Between 1953 and 1959 the country would enter into a time of turmoil with the launch of the McCarthy hearings and the beginning of the civil rights movement. (http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decade50.html) The 1950’s were not only plagued by turmoil but also experienced many successes in a number of fields. Polio was cured and the first organ transplant occurred. The 1950’s also brought credit cards, color television, and even car seat belts. (http://history1900s.about.com/od/timelines/tp/1950timeline.htm) To understand the nature of higher education in a given decade, one must understand the trials of the time and the culture of the country.

First, understanding the makeup of colleges and universities between 1950 -1959 will help understand how colleges are changed over time during this decade. In 1950 there were 2.2 million students enrolled in degree seeking institutions with 32% of those students being women. (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2012, table 221). This is spread out between 1,851 2 year and 4 year institutions. (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995, table 233) By the end of 1959 this number would grow to 3.6 million students enrolled with 35% being women (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2012, table 221). The number of institutions would also increase by 153 (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995, table 233). Information in regards to the racial makeup of students could not be found since data for this information was not tracked nationwide until 1960. This is based on information collected from the National Center for Education Statistics which is an entity of the U.S. Department of Education. (http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/1995menu_tables.asp). The increase in growth among universities and colleges, shown above, can be linked to a number of factors. These include politics, court rulings, funding, type of student, and a number of other factors.

Higher education in the 1950’s had a large number of landmark cases that would shape how culture, student body, and governance would create the foundation of modern education today. Prior to 1950 a number of reports were published on access to college and the inequity between students of different races, creeds, and religions. This can be summed up by Floyd Reeves and his summary of the 1949 National Conference on Discrimination. He stated that the numerous studies showed, “restricted curriculums and inadequate educational facilities are serious barriers to education. Large numbers of youths face economic and geographic barriers so serious that they cannot be overcome under present conditions.” (Brown, Reeves, & Anliot, 1951, p. 7) In 1950 two court cases laid the groundwork for equality in education. The first was Sweatt v. Painter which focused on two separate law schools. The ruling stated that although two separate law schools exist, “they are not equal because of the association that students make during their years has an on their success.” (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 195) This ruling was used in support of McLaurin V. Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education later that year. This ruling forced the University of Oklahoma to give an African American doctoral student the same rights and privileges of all students. (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 195). The effects of this ruling were used across the country to try to get people of color into universities.

In 1950, Jesse Lawrence, a state representative of Kentucky was able to amend the Day Law to allow African American students to attend any institution if courses of equal quality were not available at Kentucky State. (Hardin, 1997, p. 100) The Day Law was an act passed in 1904 that stated, “Blacks and whites were to be educated separately in order to preserve white racial sanctity and social order.” (Hardin, 1997, p. 13). This amendment paved the way for approximately 679 African American students to attend historically white colleges within the state of Kentucky. (Hardin, 1997, p. 104). In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education would change the culture of universities forever. The supreme court ruled, “that separating children solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority, therefore separate education facilities are inherently unequal.” Although credited many times for bringing down separate but equal, it was actually Florida ex rel. Hawkins v. Board of Control in 1956 that extended the reach of Brown v. Board of Education to higher education institutions. (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 196). While the courts influenced and shaped university culture and access it was not the only significant pieces of the 1950’s to higher education.

With an increase need of educated and skilled work force, the need for graduates of higher education institutions significantly expanded. This was due to a number of factors including the creation of branch campuses, community colleges, and the transformation of specialized schools into all-purpose institutions. Although this created more opportunities to enroll students into universities by increasing enrollment needs, it was not the factor that led to the mass growth of universities. These factors were accredited to the “variety of types of institutions, decentralized authority, multiple funding sources, and the need for open access.” (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 199).

First the growth of institution types, branch campuses, building of more educational buildings, and mass influx of students can be partly accredited to the GI Bill. At the close of World War II a large number of military personnel wanted to return to the work force. At the same time, women were not returning to the traditional house wife roles as many did following World War I putting strain on traditional male jobs. This influx of soldiers created a large cash flow from the government through the GI Bill. Women would suffer from this influx due to what society and universities would deem as male field of studies and “intensifying the split … and those deemed appropriate for women.” (Thelin, 2004, p. 267) The GI bill and the desegregation laws alone did not contribute to the mass influx of college students during this time. The concept of advanced placement in 1953 started to take root. Sputniks launch in 1957 caused the United States to also begin “taking inventory of its manpower resources”. Advance placement is the concept of, “unusually capable students were admitted not only to college but to sophomore standing by successfully passing courses of collegiate grade in high school.” (Brubacher & Rudy, 1997, p. 249-250) These three major factors would increase those attending college and university by approximately 39% at the end of the decade.

The second product of the 1950’s was that definitions of institutions were beginning to change. Prior to 1950 the two dominate types of institutions were comprehensive and research. The race for research funds, graduate programs, and being allowed to create more stringent admissions qualifications allowed these universities to better define their needs without repercussions. They would do this in part through the SAT. However, in 1959 researchers in Iowa believed a better method could be used to articulate student admission. They created the ACT to “combine admissions decisions with informed decisions about field of study and choice of major.” (Thelin, 2004, p. 303) The funding for these changes came in large part from state funding and federal tuition from the various types of students entering the university system. As enrollment increased, the need to redefine educational needs began to be considered across the United States. The raising admission qualifications of the research and comprehensive universities allowed the enrollment and spread of community colleges. (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 200) This change and increase in students attending community colleges also gave way to a need to create regional campuses that would be governed by the state comprehensive universities. Although a number of university systems were in place, many states began creating consolidated systems and flagship systems among the different institutions in this decade to better manage the influx of students and access of education. This is where the community colleges and regional campuses would end up gaining governance from. A consolidated system is, “a result from the aggregation under a new central administration and governing board of previously existing campuses.” Flagship systems are defined as, “extension of an established campus in a system either by the creation of new campuses or the absorption of old ones.” (Lane & Johnstone, 2013, p. 47)

The last major change of the 1950’s was funding which tied a rise in enrollment and growth of universities together. “Federal grant universities,” which was another name for universities receiving funds from the government, opened the door for another university cash flow to support the institutions. Kerr stated, “Currently, federal support has become a major factor in the total performance of many universities, and the sums involved are substantial.” (Thelin, 2004, p. 278) One major change was the Veterans Readjustment Act of 1952 which “directed the U.S. commissioner of education to publish a list of approved accrediting associations.” (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 262) Theses accreditation bodies would be the gatekeepers to federal funding by creating the guidelines that colleges and universities would have to follow to receive federal funding. This is a significant change to just research grants coming to the university. This type of funding made way to comprehensive requirements and objectives being created that were dependent on how much aid you would receive from the government. One way a university could increase their funding is through graduate programs and terminal degrees. In 1950, enrollment in this level of education doubled to 237,200. (Thelin, 2004, p. 281) Federal funding also came in the form of the Housing Act and National Act of 1958 that would give money to universities to build housing and teach foreign languages. (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 253)

Although, this was a positive course for established universities, the newer and up and coming universities would lose money to create graduate programs so they could in turn gain from the investments. This was due to faculty salaries, constraints of size, and the need to attract students. Another factor to funding came at the expense of the Carnegie Mellon Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The fund had dried up and the foundation eventually withdrew as a predominant funding source. (Thelin, 2004, p. 283) This was replaced by the Ford Foundation taking a dominate role by 1954 as not only a funding body but a catalyst for universities to learn how to subsidies costs. Universities learned from the Ford Foundation that grants and federal aid could not be the only source of income and began to create funding generating departments outside of just alumni donations as a staple to the university.

The 1950’s also brought a change to campus life known as “Joe College” and “Betty Co-ed.” The concept is explained as, “a college man was a full time student who entered college immediately after high school, planned to graduate in four years, chose a major in his field in his junior year, look forward to marrying his college sweetheart Betty Co-ed, and sought a career position in a large corporation.” (Thelin, 2004, p. 297) This generation of students would come to be known as the silent generation. They were considered “disinterested in social and political affairs. They were criticized as conformists lacking in independent thought.” (Cohen & Kisker, 2010, p. 215) This can be attributed partly to missing the Great War and being in school prior to the large portion of the civil rights movement. In the university setting men and women of the silent generation saw, “G.I. veterans everywhere, running the clubs, getting more financial aid, and the pick of marriageable women.” (Strauss & Howe, 1991, p. 287) This generation of male students outpaced the G.I. generation in attendance at college but the women showed no gain. (Strauss & Howe, 1991, p. 285)

Upon exploration into the history of the 1950’s, it can be determined that this was the decade that began mass access to higher education. The decade brought the beginning of equality to all citizens and greater affordability through options in types of institutions. Higher education institutions also benefited from the progress of the times by receiving new forms of income, an increase in campus development, and higher enrollments. Nationally, the 1950’s shaped the country to maintain its status as a leader in education and laid the groundwork to overcome obstacles and move the country forward.

Table 1: Summary of the History of Adult Education
Areas	Summary

Highlights	1. Landmark Judicial Cases such as: Brown v. Board of Education, Sweatt v. Painter
	2. Increase in types of institutions
	3. Increase in funding sources
	4. Open access
	5. Increase in construction

Influential Factors	1. Landmark Cases
	2. More institutions of Higher Learning increased access
	3. Cold War and Korean War
	4. Accreditation and Federal Funding
	5. Increase in Graduate Schools and terminal Degree Programs

Implications	1. Increase in number of students attending school
	2. Access granted to individuals who have not previously had access to higher education
	3. A need to increase funding to fund science, defense, and education
	4. Increase access to federal and private funding to fund college access
	5. Increase in regional schools and community colleges